During a wave of migration in the 1990s, approximately 7,900 Indonesian migrant workers came to Hong Kong amid the last decade of British colonial rule. As the majority of Indonesians were females, many worked as either domestic helpers or nannies serving and living along with local families.1
The number of Indonesians living in Hong Kong has increased dramatically since 1991, when only 7,905 (0.0% of the population) Indonesian nationals were registered in Hong Kong, according to the HKSAR Population Census. This increased to 54,629 in 2001 (0.80% of the population); 110,576 (1.60% of the population) in 2006; 137,403, or 1.90% of the population, in 2011; 159,901 (2.2% of the population) in 2016; and 145,754 (2.00% of the population) in 2021.2
Indonesians are also classified as ethnic minorities in Hong Kong, a term used for non-Chinese Hong Kong residents. In 2001, 50,494 Indonesian ethnic minorities were registered in Hong Kong, 14.75% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 343,950; this increased to 87,840, or 25.7% of Hong Kong’s 342,198 ethnic minority population in 2006. In 2011, this had increased to 133,377, or 29.5% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 451,183. In 2016, the number was 153,299, or 26.2% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 584,383. 2
Indonesian was spoken by 11,442 Hong Kong residents as a usual language in 2001, which was 0.20% of the population; it was spoken as an additional language by 1.2% of the population in 2001.2 In 2006, Indonesian was spoken as an usual language by 9,038 Hong Kong residents, 0.1% of the population, and as an another language by 1.5% of the population.2 In 2011, the number of speakers of Indonesian as a usual language was 18,118, or 0.30%, with a further 2.2% of Hong Kong’s population speaking it as another language. In 2016, Indonesian was spoken by 25,338 of Hong Kong’s population, which was 0.4% of the population. A further 2.4% of Hong Kong’s population spoke it as another language.2
1Murniati, T. (2020). Migrant Crossing Borders: Bridging Cultural Difference and Securing a Third Space in the Host Country. Jurnal Ilmiah Lingua Idea, 11(1), 70-79.
2HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
3Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
4Indonesian. Omniglot.https://omniglot.com/writing/indonesian.htm
Bengali is the term used for people from Bangladesh and Bengal, a region in Northwest India. It is also used to refer to the language spoken by Bengalis.
In the 20th century, Bengalis immigrated to Hong Kong working as sailors. There were also a considerable number of Bengalis who entered Hong Kong by illegal means. The exact number of Bengalis was undocumented.1
Due to the lack of labor export-import agreement, Bengalis came to Hong Kong to serve as migrant workers with their tourist permits. Until 1997, the year of the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, Bengalis no longer required visas to enter Hong Kong, hence the significant increase in the number of Bengalis and the size of the Bengali-speaking population in Hong Kong.2
In 1981, the Hong Kong SAR Population Census registered 11,867 people in Hong Kong with a place of origin of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Sri Lanka, which was 0.23% of the population. In 1991, the Population Census recorded 14,329 nationals of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh or Sri Lanka in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population. This increased to 20,955 (0.30% of the population) in 1996. In 2001, the Census recorded 16,481 Indian nationals and a further 12,161 nationals from Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Sri Lanka (a total of 0.40% of the population). In 2006, 12,181 residents from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (0.20% of the population) and 17,782 from India (0.30% of the population) were recorded in the Population Census. From 2011, only Indian nationals were recorded in the census (26,650, or 0.40% of the population). In 2016, this increased to 28,777 (0.40% of the population) and to 32,796 (0.40% of the population) in 2021.3
While the exact population of Bengalis and Bengali-speaking people in Hong Kong are not specified in the HKSAR Population Census Reports, according to The Hong Kong Bengalis Association, currently over 100 Bengalis families in Hong Kong hold membership with them.4
As a national language in Bangladesh and an official language in India, Bengali is spoken by more than 150 million people in Bangladesh and 104 million people in West Bengal, India. Bengali is also spoken in the United States, Australia, Europe and the Middle East.5,6
Bengali is the only official language of Bangladesh. It is the official language of in the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura, and a second official language in the state of Jharkhand.7
Phonological features:5,6
1. There are 11 vowels and 39 consonants
2. Vowels precede consonants
3. All vowels in Bengali are nasalizable
4. Inventory of vowels: /i e æ a ɔ o u/
Grammatical features:5,6
1. Bengali is an SOV language
2. It does not have articles
3. Nouns are pluralized by either adding plural markers or dropping singular classifiers
4. Indirect objects usually precede direct objects
5. Adverbials usually appear immediately after subjects
6. Subjects appear at sentence final positions in certain contexts
1Datta, S. (2020). A study into the impact of anti-extradition bill protests on Bangladeshi immigration into Hong Kong. arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.09165.
2Ahsan Ullah, A. K. M. (2013). Bangladeshi migrant workers in Hong Kong: Adaptation strategies in an ethnically distant destination. International Migration, 51(2), 165-180.
3Hong Kong SAR Population Census. https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
4The Hong Kong Bengali Association. (n.d.). About HKBA. Retrieved from https://hkbaonline.com/hkba2021/about_hkba
5Thompson, H. R. (2012). Bengali (Vol. 18). John Benjamins Publishing.
6Thompson, H. R. (2020). Bengali: A comprehensive grammar. Routledge.
3Hong Kong SAR Population Census. https://omniglot.com/writing/bengali.html
The first Indians known to have settled in Hong Kong were part of the British army, arriving in 1841 when the British took control of Hong Kong Island after the First Opium War.1
Sikh Indians, reputed to be brave and good fighters, were also recruited by the British to join the Hong Kong Police Force, which was established in 1841.1 The Hong Kong Police Force grew from 35 members to a force of 1,050 by 1906, with 411 Indians, 511 Chinese, and 128 Europeans.1 The number of Indian members of the police force declined after World War II, as India gained independence from Britain and there was an exodus of Indians from Hong Kong, and due to a high casualty rate of Indian policemen in Hong Kong.1
Indians also settled in Hong Kong to establish trade and other businesses, numbering 1,348 by 1898, in the 7,000s by the early 1900s, to 20,000 in the 1960s.1. One of the most well-known Indian families in Hong Kong is the Harilela family; Hari Harilela came to Hong Kong from Sindh in 1930 and founded a successful hotel group, Harilela Group.1. The Gidumal family is another prominent Indian family in Hong Kong; they set up successful home goods and trade businesses.1
One of Hong Kong’s most iconic modes of transport, The Star Ferry, was founded in 1888 by Dorabjee Naorojee Mithaiwala, a Parsee from India. The Star Ferry was originally named the Kowloon Ferry Company but changed to The Star Ferry Company in 1898. In addition to the Star Ferry, Dorabjee Naorojee also founded several hotels in Hong Kong, including the King Edward Hotel2.
The Star Ferry helped another Parsee Indian, Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody develop Kowloon. Mody Road in Tsim Sha Tsui is named after Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody. Sir Mody was born in Bombay and moved to Hong Kong in 1860 also contributed to the founding of the University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Jockey Club, and the Kowloon Cricket Club3.
The Ruttonjees were also an important family in Hong Kong’s development. Hormusjee Ruttonjee arrived in Hong Kong from India in 1886 and established the Hong Kong Brewery. The Ruttonjee family donated the Ruttonjee Tuberculosis Sanitorium to Hong Kong2.
Indians initially settled in the Tsim Sha Tsui and Jordan areas of Hong Kong.1 Indians have made a significant contribution to the economic success of Hong Kong through import/export trade, and transformation of Tsim Sha Tsui to a major tourist destination.1
According to the HKSAR Population Census, in 1971, the number of Hong Kong residents with India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Pakistan as place of origin was 8727, which was 2.21% of the population. This number was 11,876 (including Bangladesh) in 1981, or 0.23% of the population. In 1991, the HKSAR Population Census found that 14,329 members of the population were of Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi or Sri Lankan nationality, which was 0.20% of the population. This number increased to 20,955 in 1996, 0.30% of the population of Hong Kong. In 2001, 16,481 Hong Kong residents were listed as having Indian nationality; this was 0.20% of the population. In 2006, 17,782 Hong Kong residents had Indian nationality; this was 0.30% of the population. In 2011, this number increased to 26,650, 0.40% of Hong Kong’s population, and to 28,777 (0.40% of the population) in 2016. In 2021, this increased to 32,796 (0.40% of the population).4
These numbers in all likelihood underestimate the number of speakers of Indian languages, including Hindi, in Hong Kong as not all Indian residents may have Indian nationality. The HKSAR Population Census began counting the number of ethnic minorities in Hong Kong in 2001; the term ‘ethnic minorities’ has been used to describe Hong Kong people from non-Chinese backgrounds or mixed ethnicities. In 2001, 18,543 of Hong Kong’s 343,950 ethnic minorities were listed as Indian; this was 5.4% of the ethnic minority population.4 In 2006, the number of ethnic minorities listed as Indian in the HKSAR Population Census was 20,444, of 6.0% of the ethnic minority population of 342,198. In 2011, this was 28,616 (6.3% of the total population of ethnic minorities of 451,183). IN 2016, it was 36,462, of 6.2% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 584,383.
While the Indian diaspora in Hong Kong has historically spoken and currently speak a range of languages, including Gujarati, Kutchi, Sindhi, Parsee, Marathi, Bengali, and English, among others, Hindi is the most widely spoken language in India and the Indian diaspora.
Hindi is widely spoken around the world, with more than 637 million users globally. The majority of these speakers are in India, which has more than 633 million Hindi speakers, of which 333 million use it as their first language and 294 million as their second.5
Within India, it is widely used in northern India, including northern northern Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand states and Delhi.5
It is a Hindustani language of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family.
It is intelligible with Hindi.6 A great deal of the vocabulary of Urdu comes from Persian and Arabic while the vocabulary for Hindi is derived from Sanskrit.6 Hindi and Urdu have similar phonologies and grammar.7
The language follows SOV word order with postpositions. It is non-tonal with stress based on syllable weight.5
Hindi has 10 vowel phonemes: /ɪ ɪ̄ e ɛ ə ɑ u ū o ɔ/.6 It has a series of voiceless and voiced aspirated and unaspirated stops: /p pʰ b bʰ t tʰ d dʰ ʈ ʈʰ ɖ ɖʰ c cʰ j jʰ k kʰ g gʰ (q)/. It also has a series of aspirated and unaspirated flaps: /ɽ ɽʰ r/, the lateral /l/, and both voiceless and voiced fricatives: /(f) s ʂ ʃ (x) (z) (ʒ) (ɣ)/. It also has the approximants /w (v) y/.8
Note: phonemes that are in parenthesis may occur only in highly Sanskrit influenced Hindi.8
1Erni, J. N. & Leung, L. Y.-M. (2014). Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
2Early Foreign Communities in Hong Kong. Past and Present: The Quarterly Newsletter for the Hong Kong Heritage Project. 2015(1).
3The Life & Times of Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody. A Zoroastrian Educational Institute. https://www.zoroastrian.org.uk/
4HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
5Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
6Urdu. Omniglot. https://omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm
7Urdu. Encyclopedia Brittanica.https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language
8Kachru, Y., & Bhatia, T. (2018). Hindi-Urdu. In B. Comrie (Ed.), The World’s Major Languages, 3rd Edition. London: Routledge.
It is not clear when the first speakers of Kutchi arrived in Hong Kong. The first Indians known to have settled in Hong Kong were part of the British army, arriving in 1841 when the British took control of Hong Kong Island after the First Opium War.1
Indians also settled in Hong Kong to establish trade and other businesses, numbering 1,348 by 1898, in the 7,000s by the early 1900s, to 20,000 in the 1960s.1 Indians initially settled in the Tsim Sha Tsui and Jordan areas of Hong Kong.1 Indians have made a significant contribution to the economic success of Hong Kong through import/export trade, and transformation of Tsim Sha Tsui to a major tourist destination.1
According to the HKSAR Population Census, in 1971, the number of Hong Kong residents with India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Pakistan as place of origin was 8727, which was 2.21% of the population. This number was 11,876 (including Bangladesh) in 1981, or 0.23% of the population. In 1991, the HKSAR Population Census found that 14,329 members of the population were of Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi or Sri Lankan nationality, which was 0.20% of the population. This number increased to 20,955 in 1996, 0.30% of the population of Hong Kong. In 2001, 16,481 Hong Kong residents were listed as having Indian nationality; this was 0.20% of the population. In 2006, 17,782 Hong Kong residents had Indian nationality; this was 0.30% of the population. In 2011, this number increased to 26,650, 0.40% of Hong Kong’s population, and to 28,777 (0.40% of the population) in 2016. In 2021, this increased to 32,796 (0.40% of the population).2
These numbers in all likelihood underestimate the number of speakers of Indian languages in Hong Kong as not all Indian residents may have Indian nationality. The HKSAR Population Census began counting the number of ethnic minorities in Hong Kong in 2001; the term ‘ethnic minorities’ has been used to describe Hong Kong people from non-Chinese backgrounds or mixed ethnicities. In 2001, 18,543 of Hong Kong’s 343,950 ethnic minorities were listed as Indian; this was 5.4% of the ethnic minority population.2 In 2006, the number of ethnic minorities listed as Indian in the HKSAR Population Census was 20,444, of 6.0% of the ethnic minority population of 342,198. In 2011, this was 28,616 (6.3% of the total population of ethnic minorities of 451,183). In 2016, it was 36,462, of 6.2% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 584,383.2
Kutchi is spoken primarily in the Kachchh region of Gujarat, India. There are also speakers of Kutchi in the Sindh region of Pakistan, as well as in Kenya, Malawi, Trinidad, Tobago, Tanzania, and the United States.3,4
It is estimated that there are around 11 million speakers of Kutchi worldwide, with around 885,000 of these in the Gurajati region of India.3,5
Kutchi has a vibrant oral folk and devotional literature.3
There is some concern that Kutchi is becoming endangered, leading to efforts of preservation and revitalization, starting in the 1960s and 1970s.3 These efforts have led to Kutchi receiving constitutional status as a dialect, the creating of a new script in order to create written texts of Kutchi literature for use in primary schools.2 The Kachchhi Sahitya Academy opened in 1999. Kutchi is also preserved through the newspaper, the Kutch-Mitra Daily.3
Kutchi is an Indo-Aryan language. Some scholars consider it a dialect of Sindhi. It is related to Sindhi, and other dialects of Gujarati and Rajastani languages.3
There are dialects of Kutchi due to both caste and geographical differences.
Kutchi shares some phonological features with Sindhi, including implosives, which are not present in other Indo-Aryan languages.3
Kutchi has compound verbs.3. It is a SOV language with flexible word order like other Indo-Aryan languages.5 All nouns are classified by grammatical gender in Kutchi.5
Kutchi contains vocabulary from Sindhi, Gujarati, and Rajastani.5
In India, Kutchi uses the Gujarati script, which is a cursive form of Devanagari.4
In Pakistan, Kutchi is written in the Perso-Arabic script in the Sindhi version.5
1Erni, J. N. & Leung, L. Y.-M. (2014). Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
2HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
3Kachchhi language. Encyclopedia Brittanica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kachchhi-language
4Kutchi. Omniglot.https://omniglot.com/writing/kutchi.htm
5Kutchi Maadu. https://www.kutchimaadu.com/general/kutchi-language/
There has always been an enormous amount of trade, going back many centuries, between the Philippines and originally the South of China, even before the creation of Hong Kong.1 The official bilateral relation between Philippines and Hong Kong started in March 1947, when the first Filipino diplomatic mission in Hong Kong was set up as a consulate. It received elevation to a consulate-general in 1985.2
The Philippines was one of the first countries to send workers through the foreign domestic helper program beginning in the 1970s. These migrant workers were normally Filipino women who engaged in domestic work in Hong Kong.3 In 1981, the HKSAR Population Census registered 19,630 residents in Hong Kong that listed Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, or Brunei as their place or origin; this was 0.39% of the population in 1981.4 In 1991, there were 64,658 residents in Hong Kong with Filipino nationality (1.25% of the population).4In 1996, the HK Population Census registered 120,730 residents of Filipino nationality, 1.90% of the population. In 2001, there were 143,662 residents with Filipino nationality in Hong Kong, 1.10% of the population. In 2006, the number of residents with Filipino nationality was 115,349, or 1.7% of the population of Hong Kong. In 2011, this increased to 135,081, or 1.9% of the population. By 2016, this number grew to 186,869, or 2.5% of Hong Kong’s population. In 2021, this increased to 203,359, or 2.7% of Hong Kong’s population.4
Filipinos also comprise the largest group within the ‘ethnic minority’ population of Hong Kong. The term ‘ethnic minority’ is used in reference to non-Chinese Hong Kong residents. In 2001, 142,556 (or 41.4%) of Hong Kong’s ethnic minorities were classified as Filipino. In 2006, 112,453, or 32.9%, of Hong Kong’s ethnic minorities were classified as Filipino. in 2011, 133,018, or 29.5%, of Hong Kong’s ethnic minorities were Filipino; this increased to 184,081, or 31.5%, in 2016.4
Due to the increasing number of Filipino workers in Hong Kong, there has been an increasing number of speakers of Tagalog from 1991 to 2021. According to the HKSAR Population Census, in 1991, 5939 Hong Kong residents used Tagalog as their usual language, which was 0.1% of the population. An additional 1.0% used Tagalog as an additional language in 1991. In 1996, 13,395 Hong Kong residents, 0.2% of the population, used Tagalog as their usual language, with an additional 1.6% of the population using Tagalog as an additional language. In 2001, 12,101 Hong Kong residents spoke Tagalog as a usual language, 0.2% of the population. An additional 1.7% residents spoke Tagalog as an additional language. In 2006, 7046 residents spoke Tagalog as a usual language (0.1% of the population), with an additional 1.3% of the population speaking Tagalog as an additional language. In 2011, 16,460 residents spoke Tagalog as a usual language, which was 0.2% of the population; an additional 1.4% spoke Tagalog as another language. in 2016, 19,147 residents spoke Tagalog as their usual language (0.3% of the population), with an additional 2.3% of Hong Kong’s population speaking Tagalog as another language. In 2021, 0.4% of Hong Kong’s population spoke Tagalog as their usual language, with another 2.4% speaking it as another language.4
This increase in speakers of Tagalog in Hong Kong from 1991-2021 is shown in the figure below.1The Philippines and Hong Kong – Trade and Economic Relations: https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/philippines-hong-kong-trade-economic-relations/
2Philippine Consulate Generalhttps://hongkongpcg.dfa.gov.ph/82-the-consulate
3Lim, W, & Visaria, S. (2020). The borrowing puzzle: Why do Filipino domestic workers in Hong Kong, China borrow rather than dissave? Asian Development Review, 37 (2): 77-99.
4HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
5Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
It is not clear how many speakers of Itawis there are in Hong Kong. However, there has always been an enormous amount of trade, going back many centuries, between the Philippines and originally the South of China, even before the creation of Hong Kong.1 The official bilateral relation between Philippines and Hong Kong started in March 1947, when the first Filipino diplomatic mission in Hong Kong was set up as a consulate. It received elevation to a consulate-general in 1985.2
The Philippines was one of the first countries to send workers through the foreign domestic helper program beginning in the 1970s. These migrant workers were normally Filipino women who engaged in domestic work in Hong Kong.
In 1981, the HKSAR Population Census registered 19,630 residents in Hong Kong that listed Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, or Brunei as their place or origin; this was 0.39% of the population in 1981.4 In 1991, there were 64,658 residents in Hong Kong with Filipino nationality (1.25% of the population).4 In 1996, the HK Population Census registered 120,730 residents of Filipino nationality, 1.90% of the population. In 2001, there were 143,662 residents with Filipino nationality in Hong Kong, 1.10% of the population. In 2006, the number of residents with Filipino nationality was 115,349, or 1.7% of the population of Hong Kong. In 2011, this increased to 135,081, or 1.9% of the population. By 2016, this number grew to 186,869, or 2.5% of Hong Kong’s population. In 2021, this increased to 203,359, or 2.7% of Hong Kong’s population.4
Itawis is spoken by the Itawis people, an indigenous tribe, who have historically lived in the Cagayan Valley of Northern Luzon, The Philippines. It is also spoken in the Cordillera Administrative Regions (Apayao province, Conner municipality).5
According to the 2010 Philippine Census, the Itawis ethnic population is 253,000. There are an estimated 189,000 speakers of Itawis.5
There are two main dialects of Itawis: Malaweg (Malaueg) and Itawis (Itawit). Itawis is closely related to both Ilocano and South Ibanag.6
1The Philippines and Hong Kong – Trade and Economic Relations: https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/philippines-hong-kong-trade-economic-relations/
2Philippine Consulate Generalhttps://hongkongpcg.dfa.gov.ph/82-the-consulate
3Lim, W, & Visaria, S. (2020). The borrowing puzzle: Why do Filipino domestic workers in Hong Kong, China borrow rather than dissave? Asian Development Review, 37 (2): 77-99.
4HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
5Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
Nepalese were brought to Hong Kong as part of the British army in 1841, when the British took control of Hong Kong Island after the First Opium War. The Nepalese soldiers formed a special unit called ‘Gurkhas’; Gurkhas had been under part of the British Army as far back as 1817, under the East Indian Company Army.2 Gurkhas have been highly valued by the British Army due to their fierceness, loyalty, and braveness.2
The first Gurkhas settled in military barracks in Jordan, Shek Kong, and Yuen Long, as well as in Wan Chai, and served in the British Army in Hong Kong until the 1997 handover. After 1997, some Gurkhas moved to the UK while others remained in Hong Kong or returned to Nepal.2
The Gurkha Brigade of the British Army came to Hong Kong in 1948. In 1984, the Gurkhas were granted the right of abode; all Nepalese born in Hong Kong before 1983 were also granted the right of abode.2
Most Nepalese currently residing in Hong Kong former Gurkhas or their descendants.2
According to the HKSAR Population-by Census, there were 12,181 Nepalese in Hong Kong in 2001 (0.20% of the population),15,845 in 2006 (0.20% of the population), 15,943 (0.20% of the population) in 2011; 22,679 in 2016 (0.3% of the population); and 26,779 (0.40% of the population) in 2021.3
Nepalese are also categorized as ethnic minorities in Hong Kong. Ethnic minority is a term that refers to non-Chinese Hong Kong residents. In 2001, Nepalese comprised 3.7% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minorities (12,564 out of 343,950); this increased to 4.7% (15,590 out of 342,198) in 2006, decreasing to 3.7% (16518 out of 451,183) in 2011. This increased to 4.4% in 2016 (25,472 out of 584,383 ethnic minorities).3
There are nearly 21 million users of Nepali in Nepal, with over 12 million of these using Nepali as their first language and 9 million as their second language.4 Globally, there are nearly 25 million users.4
In Nepal, it is spoken widely in the following regions: Bagmati, Gandaki, Janakpur, Kosi, Lumbini, Mechi, Narayani, and Sagarmatha.4
Nepali is also spoken in Australia, New Zealand, Europe, North America, the Middle East and other parts of Asia.4 There are 2.9 million speakers of Nepali in India, primarily in the regions of Sikkim and West Bengal, and nearly 300,000 in Myanmar.4
Nepali is an Indo-European language in the Eastern Pahari branch of the Indo-Aryan family.4
There are many dialects of Nepali, some of which are very distinctive from each other and may not be entirely mutually intelligible. These dialects include:
Bajureli, Soradi, Acchami, Darchuleli, Humli, Bheri, Dailekhi, Gandakeli, Purbeli, Dadeldhuri, Baitadeli, Bajhangi.4
The language follows SOV word order with postpositions. It has 11 noun classes or genders and no articles.4
It has 29 consonants and 11 vowels. It is non-tonal. It is a syllable-timed language.4
Devanagari script; Braille script
It has 29 consonants and 11 vowels. It is non-tonal. It is a syllable-timed language.4
1Nepali. Omniglot.https://omniglot.com/writing/nepali.htm
2Erni, J. N. & Leung, L. Y.-M. (2014). Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
3Hong Kong Population Census.https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
4Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
The Thais arrived in Hong Kong beginning in the 1960s, initially due to trade relations with Chiu Chow Chinese who had immigrated to Thailand. These trade relations eventually resulted in marriages between Thai women and Hong Kong men. Some Thai wives eventually opened restaurants in Kowloon City, which became a Thai enclave and known as ‘Little Bangkok’ due to the numerous Thai restaurants and markets in this area of Hong Kong.1
Today, many Thai restaurants and supermarkets still exist in Little Bangkok, primarily around the South Wall Road, Carpenter Road, Nga Tsin Wai Road, and Prince Edward Road West.2 Buddist monks from Makthumvanaram temple in Tai Wo collect alms on Southwall Road on weekdays.1
Several decades later, domestic helpers from Thailand began working in Hong Kong, and now make up the majority of Thais living in Hong Kong.1
In 1981, the HKSAR Population Census recorded 9,007 residents with place of origin of Thailand or Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Burma. This was 0.18% of the population 1981. This percentage of the population has remained stable across time. In 1991, the Population Census recorded 11,787 Thai nationals living in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population; this increased to 15,993, 0.30% of the population, in 1996. There were 14,791 Thai nationals residing in Hong Kong in 2001, 0.20% of the population; this increased to 16,151 (0.20% of the population) in 2006. In 2011, there were 14,211 Thai nationals living in Hong Kong (0.20% of the population); in 2016, 11,493 Thai nationals were living in Hong Kong (0.20% of the population). In 2021, 13,838 Thai nationals were living in Hong Kong (0.20% of the population).
Thai residents are also categorized as ethnic minorities in Hong Kong; the term ethnic minority refers to non-Chinese Hong Kong residents. In 2001, Thais accounted for 4.2% (14,342) of Hong Kong’s 343,950 ethnic minorities. In 2006, Thais accounted for 3.5% (11,900) of Hong Kong’s 343,198 ethnic minorities. In 2011, Thais comprised 2.5% (11,213) of Hong Kong’s 451,183 ethnic minorities; in 2016, this decreased to 1.7% (10,215) of Hong Kong’s 584,383 ethnic minorities.
According to the Royal Thai Consulate-General of Hong Kong, 14,086 Thai nationals currently reside in Hong Kong.1Thai is the standard literary and spoken language of Thailand. Standard Thai is based on the Bangkok dialect.
Thai is mainly spoken in Thailand and Cambodia; it is also spoken as a first and second language by the overseas Thai community. There are over 60,200,000 speakers in Thailand, with 20,000,000 of these first language users and 40,000,000 second language users of Thai.3
WBasic word order in Thai is SVO. Thai does not have an article system. It has 20 consonants and 9 vowels.5
The phonological features of Thai: It has 3 voiceless (/p/,/t/,/k/) stops and 2 voiced stops (/b/, /d/) It has 3 voiceless fricatives (/f/,/s/,/h/). Thai language is a tone language. There are five tones in standard Thai (high, mid, low, rising, and falling). 5
While most Thai words a monosyllabic, some are polysyllabic. While Thai does not have inflections, compounding is common.4
Thai script; the Thai alphabet is believed to be based on the Old Khmer alphabet, which dates back to 611 AD.5 The Thai alphabet was created by King Ramkhamhaeng; the oldest surviving writings in Thai date based to 1292 AD.6
The Thai alphabet is also used to write a number of other languages in Thailand, and Sanskrit and Pali.6
1Chabot, N. (2012). Kowloon: Unknown territory. Hong Kong SAR: Blacksmith Books. https://www.blacksmithbooks.com/kowloon-little-bangkok.pdf
2HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
3Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
4Thai Language. Encyclopedia Brittanica.https://www.britannica.com/topic/Thai-language
5Kalaya Tingsabadh, M. R., & Abramson, A. S. (1993). Thai. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 23(1), 24-28.
6Thai. Omniglot. https://omniglot.com/writing/thai.htm
The first settlers from Pakistan to Hong Kong were brought to Hong Kong in the British Army in 1841 as well as the Hong Kong Police Force starting in 1844. They were recruited from the Punjab region of what was then part of India (after partition in 1947, Punjab became part of Pakistan).1
Many settlers from Punjab also worked as traders, merchants, and manufacturing.1 There was also an influx of Pakistanis to Hong Kong from the 1990s.1
In 1971, the Hong Kong SAR Population Census registered 5,278 people with a place of origin of India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) or Pakistan, which was 2.21% of the population.2 In 1981, the Hong Kong SAR Population Census registered 11,867 people in Hong Kong with a place of origin of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Sri Lanka, which was 0.23% of the population. In 1991, the Population Census recorded 14,329 nationals of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh or Sri Lanka in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population. This increased to 20,955 (0.30% of the population) in 1996. In 2001, the Census recorded 12,161 nationals from Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Sri Lanka (a total of 0.40% of the population). In 2006, 12,181 residents from Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka (0.20% of the population) were recorded in the Population Census.2 The 2011 census recorded 17,253 Pakistani nationals in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population. In 2016,15,234 Pakistani nationals were resident in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population. In 2021, Hong Kong registered 18,178 Pakistani nationals in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population.2
Hong Kong residents from Pakistan are consider ethnic minorities in Hong Kong; ethnic minority is a term used to refer to non-Chinese residents. In 2006, there were 11,111 Pakistani ethnic minorities in Hong Kong, 4.7% of Hong Kong’s 342,198 ethnic minority population. In 2011, this was 18,042, or 4.0% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 451,183. In 2016, this was 18, 094, or 3.1% of Hong Kong’s 584,383 ethnic minority population.2There are over 164,000,000 Urdu speakers in Pakistan; 62,800,000 speakers in India and 231,295,440 speakers in all countries.3 Of these 231 million speakers, 70 million speak Urdu as their first language and 161 million speak Urdu as their second language. It is also spoken in Nepal and Bangladeshi as well as the United States, United Kingdom, as well as other countries.4
In Pakistan, 15 million of the 164,000,000 million speakers use Urdu as their first language while 149,000,000 million use it as their second language.3
The order of words in Urdu is relatively flexible, since it is a synthetic language though SOV word order is most common.3 It is a non-tonal language with stress placement on the penultimate syllable.3
Urdu has 10 vowel phonemes: /ɪ ɪ̄ e ɛ ə ɑ u ū o ɔ/.6 It has a series of voiceless and voiced aspirated and unaspirated stops: /p pʰ b bʰ t tʰ d dʰ ʈ ʈʰ ɖ ɖʰ c cʰ j jʰ k kʰ g gʰ (q)/. It also has a series of aspirated and unaspirated flaps: /ɽ ɽʰ r/, the lateral /l/, and both voiceless and voiced fricatives: /(f) s ʂ ʃ (x) (z) (ʒ) (ɣ)/. It also has the approximants /w (v) y/.6
Note: phonemes that are in parenthesis may occur only in highly Persian influenced Urdu.6
1Erni, J. N. & Leung, L. Y.-M. (2014). Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
2HKSAR Population Census: https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
3Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
4Urdu. Omniglot. https://omniglot.com/writing/urdu.htm
5Urdu. Encyclopedia Brittanica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Urdu-language
6Kachru, Y., & Bhatia, T. (2018). Hindi-Urdu. In B. Comrie (Ed.), The World’s Major Languages, 3rd Edition. London: Routledge.
The first visit to Hong Kong by Japanese nationals occurred in 1841, when crewmen from the wrecked Japanese ship Kannon Maru were transported from Hong Kong to Macau.1 In 1845, 2 Japanese fishermen settled in Hong Kong, becoming the first Japanese nationals to do so. 1
In 1874, the first Japanese consulate was founded by one of original two settlers, who had become a wealthy tailor in Hong Kong.1
Settlement by Japanese nationals increased steadily in Hong Kong, and numbered in the thousands by the 1930s, becoming one of the largest foreign communities in Hong Kong.1 They settled primarily in the mid-levels district of Central and later in Wan Chai, and worked in the import-export trade and local businesses catering for Japanese residents.1. The 1931 Hong Kong Population Census registered 2,240 nationals residing in Hong Kong.4
During World War II, the number of Japanese nationals in Hong Kong decreased significantly to 393.1 The numbers increased after World War II ended, with approximately 7,802 residents of Japanese nationality in 1981 and 23,480 in 1999.2 The majority of Japanese residents work in private companies.2 According to the Consulate-General of Japan in Hong Kong, there were 25,004 Japanese nationals living in Hong Kong in 2017.3
According to the HKSAR Population Census, there were 10,850 Japanese nationals in Hong Kong in 1991, 0.20% of the population. In 1996, the number of Japanese nationals in Hong Kong rose to 19.010, or 0.30% of the population. In 2001,14,715 Japanese residents lived in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population. In 2006, 13,887 Japanese nationals lived in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population. In 2011, 13,858 Japanese nationals were registered in Hong Kong, 0.20% of the population; in 2016, this was 10,678, or 0.1% of the population. The number of Japanese nationals registered in Hong Kong was 11,486 in 2021, 0.20% of the population.4
Japanese residents are also classified as ethnic minorities in Hong Kong; the term ethnic minority refers to a Hong Kong resident of non-Chinese ethnicity. In 2001, 14,180 Hong Kong had 14,342 Japanese ethnic minorities, 4.1% of the population of 343,950 ethnic minorities in Hong Kong. In 2006, this number was 13,189, 3.9% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 342,198. In 2011, this number was 12,580, or 2.8% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 451,183 and in 2016, 9,976, or 1.7% of Hong Kong’s 584,383 ethnic minority population.4
According to the HKSAR Population Census, 8,895 Hong Kong residents, 0.2% of the population spoke Japanese as their usual language in 1991, with an additional 0.8% speaking it as another language. In 1996, 16,072 Hong Kong residents spoke Japanese as their usual language, which was 0.30% of the population; an additional 1.0% of the population spoke it as another language. In 2001,12,050 Hong Kong residents spoke Japanese as their usual language, 0.2% of the population, with a further 1.2% speaking Japanese as another language. In 2006, 11,055 people in Hong Kong used Japanese as their usual language, which was 0.2% of the population; a further 1.1% of the population used it as another language. In 2011, 10,970 people used Japanese as their usual language, 0.20% of the population, with a further 1.4% using it as another language. In 2016, this decreased to 8,106, or 0.1% of the population, using Japanese as their usual language, and 1.7% of the population using it as another language.4
There are over 124 million speakers of Japanese in Japan, with over 125 million speakers in other countries.5
Japanese communities exist American Samoa, Hawaii, North and South America, Europe, Australia, and Southeast Asia (e.g., According to the 2000 census there are 477,997 Japanese speakers in the United States).6
Japanese is the official language of Japan.
1Ng, B. W.-M. (2005). The making of a Japanese community in prewar period (1841-1941). In Foreign communities in Hong Kong, 1840s-1950s. (Ed. Chu, C. Y.-Y). Pps. 107-132. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.
2Sakai, C. (1991) ''The Japanese community in Hong Kong in the 1990s: The diversity of strategies and intentions'. In Global Japan: The Experience of Japan's New Immigrant and Overseas Communities (Eds. Goodman, R., Peach, C., Takenaka, A. & White, P). Pps. 131-146. London: Routledge Curzon.
3Consulate-General of Japan in Hong Kong: https://www.hk.emb-japan.go.jp/jp/docs/houjin_statistics_data.pdf
4Hong Kong SAR Population Census.https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
5Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International
6Asia Society: https://asiasociety.org/education/japanese-language
7Arigato Tokyo Accent Site: https://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/arigato/page1/page1.html
After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, Vietnamese and Chinese Vietnamese refugees immigrated to Hong Kong. They traveled to Hong Kong by boat (resulting in them being referred to as ‘Vietnamese boat people’). This immigration ended in 1998, after the Hong Kong government cancelled the ‘Port of First Asylum’ policy, which had existed prior to 1998. As a result, refugees from Vietnam ceased to be admitted into Hong Kong and were repatriated to Vietnam.1,2
Between the years 1975 and 2000, over 200,000 Vietnamese refugees arrived in Hong Kong, with the majority resettled in other countries or repatriated to Vietnam. 1,400 were given residency rights in Hong Kong.1,2
1Carvalho, R. (14 September 2015). How Europe can learn from the hard lessons of Hong Kong's Vietnamese refugee crisis. South China Morning Post.
2Carvalho, R. (14 September 2015). How Europe can learn from the hard lessons of Hong Kong's Vietnamese refugee crisis. South China Morning Post.
3Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
4Kirby, J. P. (2011). Vietnamese (Hanoi Vietnamese). Journal of the International Phonetic Association 41(3), 381-392.
After World War II, Koreans who had been living in China immigrated to Hong Kong. In 1949, the first Consulate of the Republic of Korea was established in Hong Kong; in 1994, the Korean International School was established.1
It is estimated that there are nearly 19,000 Koreans living in Hong Kong, mostly due to strong trade relations between Korea and Hong Kong.2 There are over 1,600 Korean businesses operating in Hong Kong today, including 10 Korean banks.2
Koreans are classified as ethnic minorities in Hong Kong; ethnic minority refers to Hong Kong residents who are not of Chinese ethnicity. In 2001, the Hong Kong Population Census registered 5,263 Korean ethnic minorities in Hong Kong, 1.5% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 343,950. In 2006, this number was 4,812, or 1.4% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 342,198. In 2011, there were 5,209 Korean ethnic minorities in Hong Kong, 1.2% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 451,183. In 2016, this number was 6,309, 1.1% of Hong Kong’s ethnic minority population of 584,383.3
Korean is the official language of both South Korea and North Korea.
Korean is spoken by over 50 million people in South Korea, and 24 million in North Korea. There are over 81 million users globally, including in more than 2 million in China, 1 million in the United States, and 500,000 in Japan.4 It is also spoken Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Russia.5
Korean is part of the Koreanic language family. It is the only language in the Koreanic language family.
There are many dialects of Korean, including dialects of South Korea (Seoul, Chungcheongdo, Kyongsangdo, Jeollado, Jeju Island) and North Korea including the Pyongan dialect. Not all the dialects are mutually intelligible.3 In South Korea, the standard variety is based on the Seoul dialect.
North and South Korean differ in spelling, vocabulary, and alphabetization. Both varieties are based on the standards endorsed by the Korean Language Society in 1933.4
1Kim, H. K. (2010). Korean language and Korean studies in Hong Kong (1998-2009). Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 7(1), 141-153.
2Consulate General of the Republic of Korea in Hong Kong: https://overseas.mofa.go.kr/hk-en/wpge/m_1511/contents.do
3Hong Kong SAR Population Census.https://www.censtatd.gov.hk/en/
4Korean Language. Encyclopedia Brittanica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Korean-language
5Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
6Lee, I., & Ramsey, S. R. (2000). The Korean Language. Albany: SUNY Press.