It is not clear when the first Ugandas came to China and Hong Kong. However, the number of Africans in Hong Kong has been increasing since the beginning of the 21st century, with many engaged in trade and commerce. There are also students from Uganda studying in Hong Kong’s tertiary institutions.1 Hong Kong also has many refugees from Uganda.2
It is estimated that there are several thousand Africans in Hong Kong today, among them many from Uganda. According to the Africa Center HK, there were around 3,144 Africans living in Hong Kong in 2016.3
Uganda was a British colony from 1894 until it gained independence in 1962. English was introduced to Uganda after colonization.4 English became indigenized in Uganda due first to colonialism and later to educational and economic development.5 English is the medium of instruction from primary 5 onwards.5 English is widely used in Uganda in commerce, trade, and research.4
English is an official language in Uganda and spoken by around 30% of the population.4
While Ugandan English is often classified as an East African English along with Kenyan and Tanzanian Englishes, all of which share a Swahili influence, Ugandan English differs from other East African English due to a lesser influence from Swahili and greater influence from Lugandan.5
Ugandan English has five vowels: /i e a o u/; there is no long-short vowel contrast in Ugandan English.4
Ugandan English prefers a CV syllable structure; vowels are often inserted between consonants in clusters in order to conform to this structure: crisps to crisips.4
The voiced dental fricatives is often realized as the an alveolar stop /d/ (that to dat).4. /l/ and /r/ conflation may also occur (broom as bloom).41Shum, T. C. T. (2018). Conceptualising integrative exchanges: Marginalisation, music and identity of African diaspora in Hong Kong. Migration and Development 8(1), 1-18.
2Refugee Union. https://refugeeunion.org/10039/meeting-refugees-union/
3Africa Center Hong Kong. (n.d.). Africa Center HK [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.africacenterhk.com/
4Nassenstein, N. (2016). A preliminary description of Ugandan English. World Englishes 35(3), 396-420.
5Meierkord, C., Isingoma, B., & Namyalo, S. (2016). Ugandan English: Its sociolinguistics, structure and uses in a globalising post-protectorate. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
It is unknown when China and Ethiopia began having direct contact. Professor Richard Pankhurst, a renowned historian, claims that the two countries have maintained a relationship since the Tang period (618-907CE).1 During the New China Period, an official diplomatic relationship between Ethiopia and the PRC was established in 1970.1
Ethiopia has founded an official consulate in Kowloon, Hong Kong, which is one of the 128 foreign representations in Hong Kong.2
It is hard to know the exact numbers of Ethiopian people who currently live in Hong Kong. It is estimated that there are several thousand Africans in Hong Kong today, among them some from Ethiopia. According to the Africa Center HK, there were around 3,144 Africans living in Hong Kong in 2016; the number of Amharic speakers is unknown.3
French was the dominant foreign language taught in Ethiopia from 1908-1935.4 In 1947, a 10 Year Education Plan was developed, which formalized primary, secondary and tertiary education. English became a school subject and the medium of instruction for the teaching of art, science, physical education, handicraft, music, geography, history and mathematics in grades three and four; in grades five and six, all subjects except Amharic were taught in English.4
Education in Ethiopia subsequently underwent a further series of curriculum reforms; in the ‘Fourth Curriculum’, which began in 1963, all primary subjects were taught in Amharic, with English a school subject.4 In the New Education and Training Policy, implemented in 1994, English is taught as a school subject from Grade 1. Some schools use English as the medium of instruction from Grade 7; it is compulsory as a medium of instruction in both secondary and tertiary schools in Ethiopia4,5 English is increasingly used in commerce, both governmental and non-governmental organizations, and research in Ethiopia.5
Ethiopian English is more syllable-timed than American or British English; pitch may also vary across phrases and sentences.6
Weak vowels may be absent in Ethiopian English. Short (lax) vowels may be realized as their long (tense) counterparts.7
The dental fricatives are absent in Ethiopian English, replaced by /t/ and /z/ for the voiceless and voiced dental fricatives, respectively.7
/z/ is devoiced in final position.7
1Mulualem, M. Striding towards better relations: Ethio-China relations http://media.africaportal.org/documents/attachment-53-Ethio-China-For_EIIPD_Web.pdf
2Consulate of Ethiopia in Hong Kong https://www.embassypages.com/ethiopia-consulate-hongkong-hongkong
3Africa Center Hong Kong. (n.d.). Africa Center HK [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.africacenterhk.com/
4Bishaw, A, & Lasser, J. (2012). Education in Ethiopia: Past, present, and future prospects. African Nebula 5, 53-69.
5Gerencheal, B. (2019). Foreign languages in Ethiopia: History and current status. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews (IJRAR) 6(1), 1431-1439.
6Gashaw, A. (2017). Rhythm in Ethiopian English: Implications for the teaching of English prosody. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies 5(1), 13-19.
7Gashaw. A. (2012). Ethiopian learners’ pronunciation difficulties and intelligibility of their spoken English: Speakers of Amharic as a native language in focus. Dissertation for PhD in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, Graduate School Addis Ababa.
The mutual relationship between Zimbabwe and China can be traced back to the Ming and Qing Dynasties, when China established commercial and cultural exchange relations with the Munhumutapa Empire. The contemporary interactions between Zimbabwe and China started from the early 1960s, when China helped Zimbabwe fight against colonization and racial oppression. Since then, the mutual relationships between two countries have become closer and closer.1
Since that time, Hong Kong has seen a continuous wave of immigrants from Zimbabwe to Hong Kong for trading, work or study.1
It is estimated that there are several thousand Africans in Hong Kong today, among them many from Zimbabwe. According to the Africa Center HK, there were around 3,144 Africans living in Hong Kong in 2016, yet the number of Shona speakers is unknown.2
Rhodesian English (fossil, non-productive dialect) is spoken by white people born or who settled in Zimbabwe when it was a British Colony, named Southern Rhodesia.7
White Zimbabwean English is spoken by fewer than 25,000 people in Zimbabwe.6
As Zimbabwe has several languages, Zimbabwean English is believed to vary according to the socioeconomic, linguistic and education background of its speakers.6,7,8,9
Research focusing solely on Zimbabwean English features is scarce.
Phonological features:1Zhang, C. (2014, November). China-Zimbabwe relations: A model of China-Africa relations? Occasional Paper 205: Global powers and Africa programme.
2Africa Center Hong Kong. (n.d.). Africa Center HK [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.africacenterhk.com/
3Kamwangamalu, N. M. (2020). Southern African Englishes: Form and Functions. In C. L. Nelson, Z. G. Proshina, & D. R. Davis (Eds.), The Handbook of World Englishes (pp. 159-172). Wiley Blackwell.
4Kamwangamalu, Nkonko M. (2001). Linguistic and cultural reincarnation of English: A case from Southern Africa. In E. Thumboo (ed.), The Three Circles of English (pp. 45-66). UniPress.
5Hickey, R. (2014). A dictionary of varieties of English. Wiley Blackwell.
6Fitzmaurice, S. (2012). White Zimbabwean English. In B. Kortmann, & K. Lunkenheimer (Eds.), The Mouton world atlas of variation in English (pp. 483-492). Mouton de Gruyter.
7Fitzmaurice, S. (2010). L1 Rhodesian English. In D. Schreier, P. Trudgill, E. Schneider, & J. Williams (Eds.), The Lesser-Known Varieties of English: An Introduction (pp. 263-285). Cambridge University Press.
8Marungudzi, T. (2016). Towards a Corpus-Based Study of Zimbabwean English: A State-of-the-Art Review and Implications for Further Research. International Journal of English and Education, 5(2), 1-13.
In 2016, Hong Kong had 3,144 people that were African or of African descent. The census does not provide separate data on the population of South Africans in Hong Kong.1
However, many Africans in Hong Kong are from southern Africa, and in particular, South Africa. Of these, most are white South Africans; the white South African community in Hong Kong has more than 200 members.2
South Africa is part of Southern Africa, which includes South Africa, Zambia, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland. In 1652, the Dutch East Indian company established the first European settlement in Southern Africa, in what is now known as Cape Town, South Africa.3 The Dutch colony expanded as Dutch farmers settled and began farming the land. They eventually became known as the Boars (a farmer, a descendant of the early Dutch or German settlers).3
In 1795 the British began occupying Cape Colony; in the following decades, waves of immigrants settled in today’s South Africa.3
The Anglo-Boar Wars between the British and the Boers occurred in 1880-1881 (the First Boer War) and 1899-1902 (Second Boer War) over influence in Southern Africa.
In 1910, the Union of South Africa were formed, with only white people in power. This led to the formation of the African National Congress in 1912, in protest of the exclusion of black people from holding seats of government and power in South Africa.3
After the pro-Afrikaner National Party came into power in 1948, South Africa began a policy of apartheid, with institutionalized segregation of races and restrictive education and employment for non-white South Africans.3 The segregation (educational, employment, residential) led to the development of different varieties of South African English: Black South African English (influenced by African languages including Zulu), White South African English (influenced by Afrikaans), Coloured South African English (influences from a range of African and Asian languages as well as Afrikaans), and Indian South African English (influenced by Indian languages).
Apartheid ended in 1994. South Africa is now a democratic country.3
South Africa recognizes 12 languages as official languages, to represent the different tribes and ethnic groups of South Africa: Afrikaans, English, Xhosa, Zulu, Southern Sotho, Venda, Tswana, Northern Sotho, Tsonga, Swati, and Ndebele.
1Africa Center Hong Kong. (n.d.). Africa Center HK [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.africacenterhk.com/
2Bodomo, A. (2012). Africans in China: A sociocultural study and its implications for Africa-China relations. Amherst, New York: Cambria Press.
3History. South African Government.https://www.gov.za/about-sa/history
4Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
It is estimated that there are several thousand Africans in Hong Kong today, among them many from Nigeria. According to the Africa Center HK, there were around 3,144 Africans living in Hong Kong in 2016.1
Many Nigerians in Hong Kong have come to Hong Kong as students, researchers and academics; the Association of Nigerian Scholars in Hong Kong was founded in 2013 by Nigerian scholars at different universities in Hong Kong.2 The ANSHK has members from the major universities in Hong Kong, including CUHK, HKUST, HKBU, PolyU, Lingnan, CityU and HKU.2
English was brought to Nigeria in the 16th century when the British first established trading contacts on the West African coast. The first missionary stations were established in 1842 and 1846 near Lagos, which became a British colony and, in 1900, a British Protectorate. Nigeria remained a British colony until 1960; it became a republic in 1963.5
English started to be studied more formally from the middle of 19th century. In the 1880s, the increasing need for Africans literate in English for colonial and trade interests, led to missionary stations beginning to teach English; state schools were established, beginning in 1899, to teach English to Muslims who were not able to attend missionary schools.3
The 1998 National Policy on Education made English a compulsory subject in grades 1 to 3 of primary school; from grade 4, English became the medium of instruction.3
While there are more than 530 languages established in Nigeria, of which 520 are living and 10 are dead.4 English is the only official language in Nigeria.4
Standard Nigerian English is the most accepted variety and it is mainly spoken by university degree holders. There are over 500 local languages in Nigeria, therefore Nigerian English has different varieties according to the linguistic and education background of the speakers. Speakers of Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo may have different features in their English.3 Southern Nigerian English is used as a term for Yoruba or Igbo influenced Nigerian English, whereas Hausa English refers to Hausa influenced Nigerian English.3
Nigerian Pidgin English is not the same as Nigerian English; Nigerian Pidgin English refers to a creole spoken as a lingua franca. It emerged through contact, mostly through trade, between Nigerians and Europeans. It is not officially recognized in Nigeria.5
The vowels of Educated Hausa English and Educated Southern Nigerian English3 | ||
---|---|---|
Educated Hausa English | Educated Southern Nigerian English | |
Monophthongs | /i:/, /ɪ/, /ɛ/, /e:/, /æ/, /ʊ/, /a:/, /a/, /o/, /o:/, /u:/, /ɜ:/, /ə/ | /i/, /ɛ/, /e/, /a/, /ɪ/, /o/, /u/ |
Diphthongs | /ai/, /aɪ/, /oi/, /ɪə/, /ɛə/, /ʊə/ | /ai/, /aɪ/, /ɔi/, /ia/, /ea/ |
Vowel realizations in Educated Hausa English and Educated Southern Nigerian English (NigE)3 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HausaEnglish | South.NigE | |||||||
KIT | ɪ | i | ||||||
DRESS | ə, a | ɛ, e | ||||||
TRAP | a | a | ||||||
LOT | a | ɔ | ||||||
STRUT | ɑ, ʊ | ɔ | ||||||
FOOT | ʊ | u | ||||||
BATH | a: | a | ||||||
CLOTH | ɔ | ɔ | ||||||
NURSE | a: | ɛ, ɔ, a | ||||||
FLEECE | i: | i | ||||||
FACE | e | e, a | ||||||
PALM | a: | a | ||||||
THOUGHT | o: | ɔ | ||||||
GOAT | o: | o, ɔ | ||||||
GOOSE | u: | u | ||||||
PRICE | ai, əi | ai | ||||||
CHOICE | ɔi | ɔi | ||||||
MOUTH | au, əu | au | ||||||
NEAR | ia | ia, ija | ||||||
SQUARE | ea | ia, ea | ||||||
START | a | a | ||||||
NORTH | ɔ | ɔ | ||||||
FORCE | a, oa | ɔ | ||||||
CURE | ua | ua | ||||||
HAPPY | i | i | ||||||
LETTER | a | a | ||||||
COMMA | a | a |
Hausa English realizations of some consonants3 | |
---|---|
/p/ | [p], [f], [ɸ] |
/f/ | [f], [p], [ɸ] |
/b/ | [b], [v] |
/v/ | [v], [b] |
/ð/ | [ð], [z] |
/θ/ | [θ], [s] |
Igbo English realizations of some consonants3 | |
---|---|
/θ/ | [θ], [t], [t̪] |
/ð/ | [ð], [d], [d̪] |
/hj/ (human) | [h] |
/pj/(pupil) | [p] |
Yoruba English realizations of some consonants3 | |
---|---|
/v/ | [v], [f] |
/θ/ | [θ], [t], [t̪] |
/ð/ | [ð], [d], [d̪] |
/dʒ/ | [dʒ], [ʒ] |
/tʃ/ | [tʃ], [ʃ] |
/h/ | [h], deleted |
/z/ | [z], [s] |
/v/ | [v, [f] |
1Africa Center Hong Kong. (n.d.). Africa Center HK [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.africacenterhk.com/
2Association of Nigerian Scholars in HK.http://www.anshk.org/members/
3Gut, U. B. (2004). Nigerian English: phonology. In B. Kortmann, E. W. Schneider, K. Burridge, R. Mesthrie, & C. Upton (Eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English (pp. 813–827). Mouton de Gruyter.
4Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2022. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-fifth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.
5Florence Agbo, O., & Plag, I. (2020). The relationship of Nigerian English and Nigerian Pidgin in Nigeria: Evidence from copula constructions in ICE-Nigeria. Journal of Language Contact 13(2), 351-388.
6Gut, U. & Milde J.‐T. 2002. The prosody of Nigerian English. Proceedings of Speech Prosody 1, 367–370.
7Hickey, R. (2014). A dictionary of varieties of English. Wiley Blackwell.
8Alabi, V. A. (2000). Semantics of occupational lexis in Nigerian English. World Englishes, 19(1), 107-112.
9Wolf, H.-G. (2020). East and West African Englishes. In A. Kirkpatrick (Ed.), The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes (197-211). Routledge.
It is not clear when the Kenyans came to China and Hong Kong. However, the number of Africans in Hong Kong has been increasing since the beginning of the 21st century, with many engaged in trade and commerce. There are also students from Kenya studying in Hong Kong’s tertiary institutions.1
It is estimated that there are several thousand Africans in Hong Kong today, among them many from Kenya. According to the Africa Center HK, there were around 3,144 Africans living in Hong Kong in 2016.2
1Shum, T. C. T. (2018). Conceptualising integrative exchanges: Marginalisation, music and identity of African diaspora in Hong Kong. Migration and Development 8(1), 1-18.
2Africa Center Hong Kong. (n.d.). Africa Center HK [Website]. Retrieved from http://www.africacenterhk.com/
3Schmied, J. (2004). East African English (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania): phonology. In B. Kortmann, E. W. Schnei1der, K. Burridge, R. Mesthrie, & C. Upton (Eds.), A Handbook of Varieties of English (pp. 918-930). Mouton de Gruyter.
4Abdulaziz, M. (1991). East Africa (Tanzania and Kenya). In J. Cheshire (Ed.), English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives (pp. 389-401). Cambridge University Press.
5Kanyoro, M. (1991). The politics of the English language in Kenya and Tanzania. In J. Cheshire (Ed.), English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives (pp. 402-419). Cambridge University Press.
6Eberhard, D. M., Gary, F. S., & Charles, D. F. (eds.). (2021). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (24th ed.). SIL International.